Droughts in India are slow-moving disasters that rarely make dramatic headlines at first, yet they affect more people and more land than almost any other natural hazard in the country. Because a large part of Indian agriculture still depends on the southwest monsoon, a delayed, weak or erratic rainy season can wither crops, dry up wells and push rural families into debt and distress within a single year.
This explainer describes how a failed monsoon becomes a drought, the different types of drought scientists recognise, the regions that suffer most, how a drought is formally declared, what relief measures follow, and how watershed development and water conservation are trying to make the country more resilient. It also looks at the link between droughts, groundwater use and a changing climate.
Quick Facts
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Primary cause | Deficient or failed southwest monsoon rainfall |
| Types of drought | Meteorological, hydrological, agricultural (and socio-economic) |
| IMD criterion for meteorological drought | Rainfall deficiency of more than 10 per cent of the long period average |
| Drought-prone regions | Marathwada, Bundelkhand, Rayalaseema, western Rajasthan, interior Karnataka, parts of Gujarat and Telangana |
| Early historical landmark | The Famine Commission of 1880 and the later Famine Codes |
| Area-based programmes | Drought Prone Areas Programme (from 1973-74), Desert Development Programme (from 1977-78) |
| Key relief law and scheme | MGNREGA (Act of 2005), National Disaster Management Act, 2005 |
| Declaring authority | State governments, guided by the central Manual for Drought Management |
How a Failed Monsoon Triggers a Drought
India receives most of its annual rainfall, commonly estimated at roughly three-quarters, between June and September. About half of the country’s net sown area remains rainfed, with no assured irrigation. As a result, the timing of rain matters as much as the total. A long dry spell in July, when kharif crops are growing, can damage yields even if the season’s total ends up near normal.
The sequence usually runs in stages. First, rainfall is below normal, either because the monsoon is late, breaks for weeks at a time or retreats early. Next, soil moisture falls and crops wilt. Then streams, tanks and reservoirs fail to fill, and groundwater, which people turn to as a substitute, declines. By the time lakes and wells dry up in the following summer, the drought has become a water crisis for towns and villages alike.
The Types of Drought
Experts do not use a single definition because the effects of a rainfall shortage appear in different forms and at different times.
Meteorological drought
This is a purely rainfall-based measure. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) treats a year as a drought year when all-India monsoon rainfall is deficient by more than 10 per cent of the long period average. A region is classed as moderately drought-affected when the deficiency is between about 26 and 50 per cent and as severely affected when it exceeds 50 per cent.
Hydrological drought
This refers to a shortage of surface and groundwater: low river flows, reservoirs well below normal storage, falling water tables. It generally lags behind meteorological drought and can persist for years after the rain returns, because aquifers recharge slowly.
Agricultural drought
Here the focus is on soil moisture and crops. It occurs when moisture is too low to meet the needs of a particular crop at a critical stage. Agricultural drought depends on soil type, crop pattern and irrigation as much as on rain, which is why neighbouring villages can be affected very differently.
Socio-economic drought
This describes the impact on people and the economy: falling farm income, rising food prices, migration, reduced employment and stress on drinking water supply. It is the human face of the other types.
Drought-Prone Regions of India
Studies identify nearly one-sixth of the country’s area as drought-prone, spread across several states. The map of risk largely follows the map of low and variable rainfall, thin soils and limited irrigation.
| Region | State | Why it is vulnerable |
|---|---|---|
| Marathwada | Maharashtra | Rain-shadow location, low rainfall, heavy groundwater extraction, water-intensive crops such as sugarcane |
| Bundelkhand | Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh | Shallow rocky soils, poor water retention, erratic rain, dependence on tanks |
| Rayalaseema | Andhra Pradesh | Semi-arid climate, low and uncertain rainfall, rain-shadow of the Eastern Ghats |
| Western Rajasthan | Rajasthan | Arid climate, very low rainfall, scarce surface water |
| North interior Karnataka | Karnataka | Rain-shadow of the Western Ghats, dryland farming |
| Kutch and parts of Saurashtra | Gujarat | Low rainfall, saline groundwater in places |
The rain-shadow effect explains several of these areas. The Western Ghats force moist monsoon winds to rise and shed their rain on the windward slopes, leaving the leeward plateau of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Rayalaseema relatively dry.
Historical Droughts and Famines
India’s history is marked by drought-linked famines. During British rule, severe famines occurred in 1876-78, which hit southern and western India, and in 1899-1900. Millions died, and the scale of the tragedy prompted an official inquiry. The Famine Commission of 1880 under Richard Strachey recommended a system of relief works, and the Famine Codes that followed laid down the principle of providing employment during drought, a principle that persists in modern schemes.
After independence, India largely avoided famine deaths through food stocks, public distribution and relief works, although serious droughts continued. Years such as 1965-66, 1972, 1987, 2002, 2009, 2014 and 2015 were marked by large monsoon deficits. The 1972 and 1987 droughts, for example, affected huge parts of the country and drove major policy changes, including expansion of employment guarantee works in Maharashtra and the creation of national drought-prone area programmes.
Impacts on Farming and Water
On agriculture
The effects begin with failed or poor harvests. Farmers who rely on rain face low yields, loss of seed and, in some cases, total crop loss. Fodder becomes scarce, so livestock are sold cheaply or released. Perennial crops such as orchards and sugarcane, which require continuous water, are especially vulnerable. Indebtedness rises as farmers borrow for inputs they cannot repay, and in severe years distress migration to cities and brick kilns increases.
On water
- Drinking water: villages depend on tankers, and in extreme cases, trains and special supply arrangements. In April 2016, a train carrying water was sent to Latur in Marathwada, a measure that drew national attention.
- Groundwater: as surface supplies dry up, borewells are drilled deeper, which lowers the water table and can leave poorer households without access.
- Hydropower and industry: low reservoir levels reduce power generation and force industrial restrictions in some regions.
- Health and nutrition: poor water quality, reduced food intake and heat stress affect children and the elderly most.
How a Drought Is Declared
Under India’s federal system, agriculture and relief are state subjects, so the declaration of a drought is made by the state government, usually at the level of a district, tehsil or block. To bring greater uniformity, the Ministry of Agriculture issued a Manual for Drought Management, first in 2009 and revised later, which sets out the indicators and procedure.
Indicators used
- Rainfall: measures of deficiency or the Standardised Precipitation Index, together with the number of dry spells.
- Crop sowing and crop condition: area sown compared with normal, and vegetation condition seen from satellites through indices such as the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index.
- Soil moisture and hydrological indicators: reservoir storage, groundwater and stream flows.
The state conducts ground-truthing through field verification of crop losses, usually by a revenue and agriculture department survey, before notifying drought. A notified drought allows the state to use its relief funds and to seek further assistance from the Centre, which is channelled through the National Disaster Response Fund, based on the recommendations of a central team that visits affected areas.
Relief and Response Measures
Drought relief in India has evolved from emergency relief works to a rights-based approach. Common measures include:
- Employment: the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005 assures wage employment, and works on water conservation are central to it.
- Food security: subsidised grain through the public distribution system, and mid-day meals continuing during the summer in affected districts.
- Drinking water: tankers, hand-pump repair and deepening of wells.
- Fodder and cattle camps: fodder depots and relief camps to protect livestock.
- Agricultural support: input subsidies, seed supply, rescheduling of crop loans, and crop insurance through the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana launched in 2016.
- Relaxation of norms: waiver or deferment of land revenue, electricity bills and school fees in some cases.
Watershed Development and Water Conservation
Because drought is partly a problem of water storage and use, long-term strategy emphasises catching rain where it falls. The Drought Prone Areas Programme, started in 1973-74, and the Desert Development Programme, begun in 1977-78, introduced the idea of treating whole micro-watersheds, which later merged into the Integrated Watershed Management Programme. The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, launched in 2015 with the slogan “Har Khet Ko Pani”, extends irrigation and promotes micro-irrigation.
Typical watershed works
- Contour bunds, check dams, farm ponds and percolation tanks to hold runoff and recharge groundwater.
- Afforestation and pasture development on slopes.
- Drip and sprinkler irrigation, which use water more efficiently than flooding fields.
- Revival of traditional systems such as johads, tanks, stepwells and baolis.
Community-led examples became famous. Ralegan Siddhi in Maharashtra, led by Anna Hazare, and Hiware Bazar showed how village-level watershed work could turn drought-prone areas into water-secure ones. In Rajasthan, Rajendra Singh and the Tarun Bharat Sangh revived johads in the Alwar region, earning him the title “Waterman of India.” Schemes such as Maharashtra’s Jalyukt Shivar and the national Jal Shakti Abhiyan and Atal Bhujal Yojana, both launched in 2019, build on these ideas through groundwater management and public participation.
Climate Links: El Nino, Warming and Groundwater
The monsoon is influenced by large-scale ocean-atmosphere patterns. The best-known is the El Nino phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation, when the central and eastern Pacific warms and monsoon rainfall in India has often, though not always, been below normal. The Indian Ocean Dipole, a similar pattern of temperature differences across the Indian Ocean, can strengthen or offset that effect. This is why the IMD and other agencies watch these indicators when preparing seasonal forecasts.
Climate change is adding to the uncertainty. Studies suggest that rainfall is becoming more concentrated into fewer, more intense events, with longer dry gaps in between, while higher temperatures raise evaporation and crop water demand. At the same time, heavy dependence on groundwater means that India can turn a rainfall shortage into a water crisis faster than before. Reducing the risk therefore needs better crop choices, such as suitable millets and pulses in dry regions, as well as efficient irrigation and demand management.
Conclusion
Droughts in India are the outcome of climate variability meeting human choices. A weak monsoon cannot be prevented, but its consequences can be softened through accurate forecasts, timely declaration, employment and food guarantees, crop insurance, and above all through local water harvesting and wise use of groundwater. The success of village-level watershed efforts shows that resilience is possible even in the driest regions when communities and governments work together.
Frequently Asked Questions
What causes drought in India?
The main cause is a deficient or poorly distributed southwest monsoon, since most of India’s annual rain falls between June and September and a large share of farmland is rainfed. Factors such as El Nino, long dry spells, groundwater overuse and water-intensive crops can make the effects worse.
What are the types of drought?
Droughts are generally classed as meteorological (a rainfall shortage), hydrological (low surface and groundwater), agricultural (insufficient soil moisture for crops) and socio-economic (impact on livelihoods and the economy). They often appear one after another as a dry spell continues.
Which regions of India are most drought-prone?
Marathwada in Maharashtra, Bundelkhand in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh, western Rajasthan, interior Karnataka and parts of Gujarat are well-known drought-prone regions. Many of these lie in the rain-shadow of mountains or in semi-arid zones.
Who declares a drought in India?
State governments declare drought, usually for specific districts or blocks, after considering indicators such as rainfall, crop sowing, vegetation condition, soil moisture and reservoir levels. The central Manual for Drought Management guides the process, and a declared drought allows states to use disaster relief funds and seek central assistance.
How does MGNREGA help during drought?
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005 provides a legal right to wage employment for rural households. In drought years it gives income when farm work is unavailable, and many of its works, such as ponds, check dams and soil conservation, also improve long-term water security.
Can watershed development reduce the effects of drought?
Yes. Structures such as check dams, farm ponds and contour bunds capture rainfall and recharge groundwater, which raises the water table and supports crops during dry spells. Examples like Ralegan Siddhi, Hiware Bazar and the johads of Alwar show how such work, led by communities, can reduce vulnerability even in dry regions.
