India-Myanmar Relations Explained

India-Myanmar relations are shaped first and foremost by geography. Myanmar is the only member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) that shares both a land and a maritime border with India, and it is the land bridge through which India’s Northeast connects to mainland Southeast Asia. This position makes Myanmar central to India’s Act East policy, to the development of its border states and to the security of the eastern frontier.

The two countries share centuries of Buddhist, trading and cultural exchange, a colonial past in which Burma was ruled as a province of British India until 1937, and a long border that runs through rugged hills and forests. Their modern relationship has combined connectivity projects, security cooperation, energy interests and development assistance with the challenge of dealing with a politically turbulent neighbour. This explainer sets out the main elements in a factual and balanced manner.

History of India-Myanmar Relations

Contact between the Indian subcontinent and the lands that make up present-day Myanmar goes back more than two thousand years. Theravada Buddhism, which came from India and Sri Lanka, became the dominant faith of Myanmar, and Pali scriptures, pilgrimage routes and monastic links created lasting bonds. Many Burmese Buddhists consider Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and other sites in India sacred, and the Burmese kings supported temples and monasteries there.

The colonial period

Britain annexed Burma in stages during the nineteenth century, and for decades it was administered as a province of British India. Large numbers of Indians migrated to Burma as labourers, clerks, traders and moneylenders, particularly to Rangoon, which at one time had a substantial Indian population. Burma was separated from British India in 1937. The colonial era also left a mark on Indian history, since figures such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Subhas Chandra Bose were imprisoned in Mandalay, and the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.

After independence

Myanmar, then known as Burma, became independent in January 1948. India and Burma signed a Treaty of Friendship in 1951, and leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and U Nu maintained warm personal ties. After the military takeover of 1962, relations cooled, and many people of Indian origin left Burma following nationalisation policies. Contact resumed gradually in the following decades, though the relationship remained relatively limited.

The Pivot of the 1990s and Engagement After Look East

India’s approach to Myanmar shifted significantly in the early 1990s. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, following the 1988 uprising and the military’s refusal to honour the result of the 1990 elections, India voiced strong support for the democracy movement and sheltered some activists. Aung San Suu Kyi, who had spent part of her youth in India, received the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1993.

Why India changed course

Several factors led New Delhi towards a more pragmatic policy. The Look East policy, launched in the early 1990s, required stronger links with Southeast Asia, and Myanmar was the natural gateway. India also faced insurgent groups in its Northeast, some of which had sanctuaries across the border, which created a need for cooperation with Myanmar’s government. In addition, India was concerned about the rising Chinese influence in Myanmar, in terms of economic investment, infrastructure and defence supplies.

The framework that emerged

From the mid-1990s, India engaged Myanmar’s governments at all levels. Border trade was formalised in 1994 and the Friendship Road between Tamu and Kalemyo, on the route towards Mandalay, was built with Indian assistance and opened in 2001. Since then, successive Indian governments have followed what is sometimes described as a policy of engagement with whichever authorities hold effective power while voicing support for an inclusive political process. Myanmar’s membership of BIMSTEC and its ties with ASEAN further widened the avenues for cooperation.

The Land and Maritime Border

India’s boundary with Myanmar stretches for about 1,600 kilometres through some of the most difficult terrain in the region, passing through the hills and forests of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. A maritime boundary in the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal separates the two countries and was demarcated by an agreement in 1986. The Coco Islands, which belong to Myanmar, lie not far north of India’s Andaman and Nicobar archipelago, which adds a maritime security dimension.

Border arrangements

• Land boundary agreement: The boundary was settled in 1967, and the two countries have since cooperated in demarcation and in border management.
• Free Movement Regime: For many years, members of communities who live on both sides of the border, who share ethnic and family ties, could travel a short distance across the border without a visa. India has reviewed this arrangement in recent years, citing security and migration management concerns.
• Border trade: Trade posts such as Moreh-Tamu in Manipur and Zokhawthar-Rih in Mizoram facilitate local commerce.
• Border haats and fencing: India has proposed fencing and better infrastructure along sections of the border, which has raised questions in the border communities.

Ethnic ties across the boundary

The border was drawn in the colonial period, and it divides communities such as the Nagas, the Kukis and Chins, and the Mizos. Family, cultural and economic ties across the line are strong, which makes border management a delicate balance between security needs and the livelihoods of local people.

The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project

The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project is the flagship connectivity effort between the two countries. It was conceived to give India’s landlocked Northeast an alternative route to the sea, reducing dependence on the narrow Siliguri Corridor, often called the Chicken’s Neck.

How the route works

The project links Kolkata to Sittwe port on the Rakhine coast by sea, then continues by inland waterways along the Kaladan river to Paletwa in Chin State, and finally by road from Paletwa to Zorinpui on the Mizoram border. From there, it connects to the Indian highway network. The framework agreement was signed in 2008, and India has financed much of the construction.

Progress and obstacles

• Sittwe port: The port, built with Indian assistance, has been completed and has handled cargo operations, with an Indian company taking over management in recent years.
• Paletwa inland terminal: The waterway section has been developed.
• Road section: The Paletwa-Zorinpui road has been slower, owing to difficult terrain, funding and contracting issues, and in later years the security situation in Rakhine and Chin states.

The project illustrates both the promise and the difficulty of building infrastructure in a region marked by conflict.

The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway

The Trilateral Highway is a planned road of roughly 1,400 kilometres connecting Moreh in Manipur, through Tamu, Mandalay and other towns in Myanmar, to Mae Sot in Thailand. It would be the first continuous road link between India and Southeast Asia, and has been described as a cornerstone of the Act East policy.

Parts of the road

• The Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo section, known as the India-Myanmar Friendship Road, was built by India’s Border Roads Organisation and opened in the early 2000s.
• India has also undertaken bridge upgrades along the Kalewa-Yargyi section and later work on other stretches.
• The remaining sections in Myanmar and the link to Thailand have been affected by delays, with continuing discussions of extending the road into Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.

Why it matters

Beyond trade, the road could open Northeast India to markets in Southeast Asia, support tourism and allow motor vehicle movement under agreements negotiated between the three governments. Challenges include security conditions along the route, funding, a motor vehicle agreement, and harmonisation of customs and transport rules. The project is also a test of how connectivity can proceed when political conditions in a transit country are uncertain.

Security and Defence Cooperation

Security cooperation is a central part of the relationship. India’s Northeast has experienced insurgency for decades, and some militant groups have used camps across the border. Cooperation with Myanmar’s armed forces has therefore been important to India.

Joint measures

• Coordinated operations: The two armies have conducted coordinated operations against insurgent groups along the border, and India has carried out limited cross-border actions at certain times.
• Intelligence sharing: The two sides exchange information on militants, smuggling of arms and narcotics, and trafficking.
• Defence supplies and training: India has supplied some equipment and offers training courses for Myanmar’s personnel, including a submarine transferred to the Myanmar Navy in 2020.
• Naval cooperation: Exercises, port calls and coordination of maritime patrols in the Bay of Bengal are part of the relationship.

Maritime concerns

The Bay of Bengal is vital for India’s energy and trade. Myanmar’s coast, which includes ports such as Kyaukphyu and Sittwe, lies at a point where regional powers compete for influence. India’s interest is in maintaining an open and secure maritime space and in preventing any single power from gaining dominating influence close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Energy, Trade and Economic Links

The economic relationship has grown more slowly than the political one, but it has potential. Bilateral trade is modest compared with the countries’ combined size, with Indian imports mainly consisting of agricultural products, in particular pulses, beans and forest products, and Indian exports including pharmaceuticals, machinery, sugar and manufactured goods.

Energy and resources

Indian state firms, including ONGC Videsh and GAIL, hold minority stakes in offshore natural gas blocks in the Bay of Bengal off Rakhine state, and India has explored options to bring the gas to its own market. Myanmar’s reserves are also supplied to China and Thailand, which have taken the lion’s share. Energy cooperation also includes proposals for hydropower and power transmission.

Development partnership

India has funded projects in Myanmar through grants and lines of credit, including roads, bridges, railways, power infrastructure, healthcare, education and agriculture. It has set up facilities such as an advanced centre for agricultural research and training, an institute for information technology and a language laboratory. The Rakhine State Development Programme, begun in 2017, supported housing and community projects in a region facing severe humanitarian challenges. India also offers scholarships and capacity-building opportunities through the ITEC programme.

Cultural and People-to-People Ties

Buddhism remains the strongest cultural link. Indian authorities have promoted Buddhist tourism and circuits that include Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar, which are of great interest to Myanmar pilgrims. India has also helped restore the Ananda Temple in Bagan, and carried out conservation work on temples damaged by earthquakes in Bagan, in cooperation with Myanmar’s authorities.

• Diaspora: A community of people of Indian origin, including Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi and Gujarati families, continues to live in Myanmar, though in much smaller numbers than before 1962.
• Language and festivals: Hindi films, songs and festivals are popular, and Indian cuisine has become part of Myanmar’s urban life.
• Education: Myanmar students study in Indian universities, and Indian institutions offer short-term courses.
• Heritage: The grave of Bahadur Shah Zafar in Yangon and the memory of Indian freedom fighters held in Mandalay are shared historical landmarks.

Political Complexities and the 2021 Coup

Myanmar has experienced long periods of military rule and a brief period of partial civilian government between 2011 and 2021. On 1 February 2021, the military took over power, declared a state of emergency and detained elected leaders, including Aung San Suu Kyi. The takeover was followed by widespread protests, armed resistance and a humanitarian crisis, with thousands of people displaced, some of whom crossed into Mizoram, Manipur and other Indian areas.

India’s approach

India expressed concern at the developments, called for restraint and the release of detained leaders, and urged a return to democratic processes. At the same time, it has maintained a working relationship with the authorities in power, citing its security interests, the need to protect its border states and its connectivity projects. India has also provided humanitarian aid. Critics argue that engagement with the military risks being seen as legitimisation, while supporters of the policy contend that disengagement would hand influence to rivals and endanger Indian security interests. India has generally followed a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of neighbours, a position shared by many of its Asian partners.

The Rohingya question

The situation of the Rohingya, a Muslim minority from Rakhine State, many of whom fled to Bangladesh in 2017 and to India in smaller numbers, is another sensitive issue. India has urged a durable solution that allows safe, sustainable return and has supported development in Rakhine, while dealing with the domestic questions around the presence of Rohingya refugees on its territory.

Challenges and the Road Ahead

The relationship faces significant uncertainties. These include the continuing conflict inside Myanmar, the instability on the border, delays in infrastructure, competition from other powers and the weak state of the Myanmar economy. Spillover effects such as refugee movement, arms and drug trafficking and conflict in border areas of Manipur and Mizoram complicate management.

Priorities

• Completing the Kaladan project and the Trilateral Highway when conditions permit.
• Maintaining humanitarian support while protecting border communities.
• Managing the border in ways that respect local ties while addressing security risks.
• Strengthening trade, banking and payment links, including the use of local currencies.
• Working with BIMSTEC and ASEAN to ensure regional stability.

Conclusion

India-Myanmar relations reflect the intersection of geography, history and strategy. Myanmar offers India a land route to Southeast Asia, a partner in border security and a participant in the Bay of Bengal’s regional economy, while India offers Myanmar infrastructure, development assistance and a counterweight in a competitive neighbourhood. Projects such as the Kaladan corridor and the Trilateral Highway show the ambition of the partnership, while the political situation in Myanmar illustrates how unpredictable circumstances can slow its progress. India’s long-term interest in a stable, peaceful and connected neighbour is likely to guide its policy in the years ahead.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is Myanmar important for India?

Myanmar is the only ASEAN country that shares both a land and a maritime border with India, and it is the gateway for India’s Act East policy. It connects Northeast India to Southeast Asia by land and affects security along India’s eastern frontier and in the Bay of Bengal.

What is the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project?

It is a connectivity project that links Kolkata to Sittwe port in Myanmar by sea, then uses the Kaladan river to reach Paletwa and a road to Mizoram. Its aim is to give India’s Northeast an alternative route to the sea. The port and waterway sections have been developed, while the road has faced delays.

What is the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway?

It is a planned road of roughly 1,400 kilometres from Moreh in Manipur through Myanmar to Mae Sot in Thailand. It is meant to be a continuous road link between India and Southeast Asia, although parts of the highway in Myanmar have been delayed by funding and security conditions.

How long is the India-Myanmar border?

The land border is about 1,600 kilometres long and passes through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. The two countries also share a maritime boundary in the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, demarcated by a 1986 agreement.

What is the Free Movement Regime?

It is a longstanding arrangement that allowed people living along the border, many of whom have family and ethnic ties across it, to travel a short distance into the other country without a visa. India has reviewed the arrangement in recent years, citing security and migration management concerns, and proposed stronger border fencing.

How has India responded to the 2021 military takeover in Myanmar?

India has expressed concern, called for restraint and a return to democratic processes, and provided humanitarian assistance. It has also maintained working-level engagement with the authorities in power because of its border security interests and connectivity projects, a policy that supporters call pragmatic and critics view as controversial.