The inland waterways of India comprise the country’s rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks and tidal inlets that can be used for the movement of passengers and cargo. India has a vast river system and a long network of navigable channels, yet for most of the twentieth century these routes were used only on a limited scale, with the bulk of freight moving by road and rail. In recent years, waterways have been receiving renewed policy attention as a cheaper, cleaner and less congested mode of transport.
The central role in this effort is played by the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) and by the National Waterways Act, 2016, which brought 111 waterways under the national framework. This article explains how the system is organised, what the key national waterways are, how the flagship Ganga corridor is being developed under the Jal Marg Vikas Project, and what benefits and challenges the sector faces.
Quick Facts
| Item | Details |
|---|---|
| Nodal body | Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), established 27 October 1986 |
| Administrative ministry | Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways |
| Head office | Noida, Uttar Pradesh |
| Key law | National Waterways Act, 2016, which declared 111 national waterways |
| First national waterway | NW-1: Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly, from Haldia to Prayagraj |
| Flagship project | Jal Marg Vikas Project on NW-1, assisted by the World Bank |
| Other early waterways | NW-2 (Brahmaputra), NW-3 (West Coast Canal), NW-4 and NW-5 |
| International link | Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade with Bangladesh |
The Waterway Resource of the Country
India is crossed by large perennial rivers such as the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi, along with their tributaries and distributaries. The country also has coastal canals, backwaters and estuaries, especially along the west coast in Kerala and Goa and the delta regions of the east coast. Together, these form a very large potential navigable network, although only a portion of it has the depth, width and infrastructure for commercial vessels.
Waterways have deep historical importance. Ancient and medieval trade used rivers and coastal routes, and cities such as Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata and Kochi grew along them. The British period saw the development of canals and steamship services on rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra, and the Hooghly became the gateway of Kolkata port. With the spread of railways and later roads, inland navigation lost ground, and many waterways silted up and fell into disuse. The modern revival began with the creation of a dedicated authority in 1986.
Types of inland water routes
- Rivers: the main arteries, which offer long continuous stretches.
- Canals: constructed channels that connect natural water bodies or serve irrigation and navigation.
- Backwaters and lagoons: especially in Kerala, used for both transport and tourism.
- Creeks and tidal channels: used in estuarine regions such as the Sundarbans and Mumbai region.
The Inland Waterways Authority of India
The Inland Waterways Authority of India was set up on 27 October 1986 under the Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985. Its mandate is to develop, maintain and regulate national waterways for shipping and navigation. It works under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways and has its headquarters at Noida, with regional offices at places such as Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Kochi.
IWAI undertakes a range of tasks. It surveys waterways and prepares detailed project reports, carries out dredging to maintain the required depth, builds terminals and jetties, provides navigational aids such as buoys and night navigation lights, and implements information systems for vessel tracking. It also promotes the use of inland vessels and oversees the development of fairways. Vessel regulation is governed by separate legislation, and the Inland Vessels Act, 2021, replaced an older colonial-era statute to create a uniform national framework for the registration and safety of inland vessels.
Functions in brief
- Declaring, surveying and developing national waterways.
- Constructing and maintaining navigation channels, locks and terminals.
- Providing navigational aids and a River Information System for vessel movement.
- Promoting cargo and passenger services and cruise tourism.
The National Waterways Act, 2016
For many years, only five stretches were officially declared as national waterways. The National Waterways Act, 2016, which came into force in April 2016, changed the picture dramatically. It repealed the earlier individual Acts that had declared each waterway and brought together a total of 111 national waterways under a single law, adding 106 new waterways to the five existing ones.
The new list includes stretches on many rivers, such as the Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada, Tapi, Barak, Mandovi and Zuari, and spreads across almost every state. The step gave legal recognition to these routes and enabled the Centre to carry out surveys and feasibility studies for each. In practice, however, only a subset of these waterways is commercially viable at present, and further development depends on the volume of cargo, depth available and investment.
The First Five National Waterways
Before the 2016 Act, the first five national waterways had been declared in stages between 1986 and 2008. They still form the backbone of the system.
| Waterway | Route |
|---|---|
| NW-1 | Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system, from Haldia (West Bengal) to Prayagraj (Uttar Pradesh) |
| NW-2 | Brahmaputra river, from Sadiya to Dhubri in Assam |
| NW-3 | West Coast Canal in Kerala, from Kottapuram to Kollam, with the Champakara and Udyogmandal canals |
| NW-4 | Canals and rivers including parts of the Godavari and Krishna, between Kakinada and Puducherry |
| NW-5 | East Coast Canal with the Brahmani river and the Mahanadi delta in Odisha |
NW-1 is the longest of the early group and passes through West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. NW-2 is vital for the north-east, where roads and rail lines are limited by terrain. NW-3 in Kerala supports a mix of cargo, passenger and tourism services through its backwaters.
NW-1 and the Jal Marg Vikas Project
The Ganga waterway is the flagship of India’s inland navigation revival. The Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP) focuses on the stretch of NW-1 between Varanasi and Haldia, and is intended to make it navigable by larger vessels throughout most of the year. It is being implemented by IWAI with technical and financial assistance from the World Bank. The project aims to ensure a minimum depth that allows vessels of several thousand tonnes to ply on the river, which is a big step up from the small barges that were used earlier.
Key components
- Fairway development: dredging and channel marking to ensure a navigable depth.
- Multimodal terminals: cargo terminals at Varanasi, Sahibganj and Haldia that link the river with rail and road.
- Navigation lock at Farakka: a lock at the Farakka barrage that allows vessels to pass between stretches.
- River Information System: digital systems for monitoring vessel movement, depth and traffic.
- Roll-on roll-off (Ro-Ro) facilities and jetties: to help carry vehicles and passengers across the river.
The Varanasi multimodal terminal was inaugurated in 2018, when a vessel carrying containers from Kolkata arrived there, marking a symbolic beginning of regular containerised cargo on the Ganga. The terminals are designed to act as nodes that connect with national highways and railways so that cargo can move seamlessly across modes.
Cargo and Passenger Movement
The main commodities moved on inland waterways include coal, fly ash, stone chips, cement, fertiliser, food grains, steel, containers and project cargo, as well as petroleum products and building material. Bulk cargo is especially suitable for waterways because it is heavy, low in unit value and not highly time-sensitive. Several industries located along rivers, including power plants and fertiliser units, have started using barge services for moving inputs and outputs.
Passenger transport has a longer history. Ferry services and Ro-Ro vessels connect riverbanks in Assam, West Bengal and Kerala, and water metro systems are being developed in coastal cities. Cruise tourism has also been growing. In January 2023, a long-distance river cruise from Varanasi to Dibrugarh, travelling along the Ganga, through Bangladesh, and along the Brahmaputra, was flagged off and was publicised as the longest river cruise in the world. Smaller cruises operate on the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the backwaters of Kerala.
Schemes to encourage cargo
- Incentive schemes that provide support to cargo owners who shift freight from road or rail to waterways.
- Development of terminals and jetties for use by private operators.
- Integration with national logistics planning under the PM Gati Shakti framework and the Sagarmala programme.
Benefits of Inland Water Transport
Inland water transport offers several advantages for a country of India’s size. The most significant is cost: moving a tonne of cargo over a given distance by water is generally cheaper than by road and often cheaper than by rail, especially for heavy bulk goods. Waterways also use much less fuel per tonne-kilometre, which translates into lower greenhouse gas emissions and a smaller environmental footprint.
Another benefit is the reduction of congestion. India’s highways and railway lines are under heavy pressure, and shifting even a modest part of freight to waterways can free up capacity. Waterways also need little land compared with new roads or railway lines, since the channel already exists, which avoids many of the land acquisition difficulties that affect other projects. They create regional employment through terminals, shipping, and ancillary services, and offer scope for tourism and local economic activity.
| Aspect | Advantage of waterways |
|---|---|
| Cost | Lower cost per tonne-kilometre, especially for bulk cargo |
| Energy | High fuel efficiency compared with road transport |
| Environment | Lower emissions and less pollution per unit of cargo |
| Land use | Minimal new land needed, since natural channels are used |
| Capacity | Relieves pressure on congested roads and railways |
International Connectivity: The Bangladesh Protocol
India’s waterways also have an international dimension. Under the Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade, signed with Bangladesh and renewed periodically, vessels of each country can use specified river routes of the other for the movement of goods. These routes connect Kolkata and other Indian ports with places in Bangladesh and with north-eastern India, using stretches of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and their distributaries.
The arrangement offers a shorter and cheaper route for moving cargo to the north-east through Bangladesh, which is important because the region is connected to the rest of India only by a narrow land corridor. It has also enabled the movement of project cargo and bulk goods, and it underlies the long-distance cruise services that cross into Bangladesh. Smooth operation, however, depends on adequate depth, port facilities and procedures on both sides.
Challenges Facing Inland Waterways
Despite the promise, the sector faces serious practical obstacles that explain why waterways account for only a small share of the country’s freight movement.
Dredging and siltation
Many Indian rivers carry heavy sediment loads, and the channel can shift after every monsoon. Maintaining a navigable depth requires repeated and costly dredging, and the disposal of dredged material must be planned carefully.
Seasonality and water availability
River flows vary widely between the monsoon and the dry months. In summer, water levels in some stretches fall sharply, limiting the size of vessels and the load they can carry. Barrages, diversions for irrigation and upstream abstraction can further reduce flows.
Infrastructure and institutional issues
- Low bridges and cables: many bridges and overhead power lines have insufficient clearance for taller vessels.
- Terminal and last-mile links: shippers need reliable road and rail connections to terminals.
- Cargo availability: operators need a steady volume of cargo to run regular, viable services, especially to ensure return loads.
- Multiple agencies: coordination among central and state agencies, irrigation departments and port authorities can be complex.
Ecological concerns
Rivers are fragile ecosystems. Dredging, vessel traffic and noise can affect aquatic life, including the Ganges river dolphin, which is the national aquatic animal. Environmental impact assessments, monitoring and mitigation measures are therefore integral to waterway projects, and conservationists have urged caution in sensitive stretches.
The Road Ahead
The future of India’s inland waterways depends on steady investment, better integration with other modes, and adaptation to the realities of each river. Plans include the development of additional waterways with high cargo potential, community jetties for local ferry services, modern vessels with cleaner fuels, and stronger digital systems for planning and tracking. Water metro and ferry services in cities with creeks and rivers are expected to complement the freight network.
Integration with the wider logistics ecosystem is vital. Waterways work best when they are part of a seamless chain that includes ports, highways, railways and industrial clusters. As the country works to bring down its overall logistics costs, the strategic role of inland waterways as a lower-cost, lower-emission option is likely to increase, even though the sector will remain complementary to rather than a replacement for rail and road.
Conclusion
India’s inland waterways stand at the intersection of history and modern infrastructure planning. The creation of IWAI in 1986, the declaration of five early national waterways and the sweeping National Waterways Act of 2016 have established the framework, while projects such as the Jal Marg Vikas Project on the Ganga have started to translate the vision into terminals, vessels and regular cargo movement. Challenges of dredging, seasonality and ecology are real, but the economic and environmental logic of using rivers as transport corridors remains strong.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Inland Waterways Authority of India?
The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory body set up on 27 October 1986 to develop, maintain and regulate national waterways for shipping and navigation. It works under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways and is headquartered at Noida.
How many national waterways are there in India?
The National Waterways Act, 2016, declared 111 national waterways. It added 106 new waterways to the five that had been declared earlier, bringing all of them under a single legal framework.
Which is National Waterway 1?
NW-1 is the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system, running from Haldia in West Bengal to Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. It is the focus of the Jal Marg Vikas Project, which is being implemented with World Bank assistance.
What is the Jal Marg Vikas Project?
The Jal Marg Vikas Project aims to develop the Ganga waterway between Varanasi and Haldia so that larger vessels can navigate it. Its components include fairway development, multimodal terminals at Varanasi, Sahibganj and Haldia, a navigation lock at Farakka and a River Information System.
Why is inland water transport considered beneficial?
It is generally cheaper per tonne-kilometre than road transport, uses less fuel and produces lower emissions. It also eases congestion on roads and railways and needs little new land, since existing rivers and canals are used.
What are the main challenges facing inland waterways?
The main challenges include the need for continuous dredging because of siltation, seasonal variation in water levels, low bridge clearances, limited cargo volumes and last-mile connectivity. Ecological concerns, such as the impact on river dolphins, also need careful management.
